Participant Observation and Grand Theory Essay

Bronislaw Malinowski, with his ground-breaking field work of the Trobriand Islander community in the beginning of the 20th century still today counts as a pioneer, if not the founder of the British Social Anthropology. In his famous book Argonauts of the Western Pacific. An Account of Native Enterprise and Adventure in the Archipelagos of Melanesian New Guinea that was first published in 1922 he develops an elaborate methodological framework for ethnographical research, also known as ‘participant observation’. This method will highly influence the anthropological way of approaching its field of study and hence its theoretical landscape from then on. Looking at Malinowski’s description of the clan system of the Trobriand community, his descriptive and specifying style of formulation becomes apparent: â€Å"Each of the four clans has its own name: Malasi, Lukuba, Lukwasisiga, Lukulabuta. (†¦) There are special combinations of the clan names with formative roots, to descrive men and women and the mixed plurality belonging to the same clan: Tomalasi – a Malasi man; Immalasi – a Malasi women; Memalasi – the Malasi people (†¦). Near the village of Laba’I, on the northern shore of the main island, there is a spot called Obukula, which is marked by a coral outcrop. Obukula is, in fact, a ‘hole’ (dubwadebula), or ‘house’ (bwala); that is to say, one of the points from which the first ancestors of the linage emerged. † (Malinowski 1929: 496 f. , italics in original) This very nuanced and case specific example of the material gained from his methodological approach gives rise to the question if Malinowski’s heritage of participant observation has forever distanced Anthropology from bringing forward grand theories? To be able to consider and discuss this question, it is important to first define what Malinowski circumscribed when he laid out his dogma for ethnographical research by the term participant observation. Secondly, a closer inspection of the dictum ‘grand theory’ is indispensable for our purpose and will be clarified in the second section of this essay. Subsequently, we will look at these two concepts and their relationship to one another in section three in order to approach the question whether Anthropology can be viewed as a science able to produce grand theories. I. Participant observation In the foreword to Argonauts of the Western Pacific Malinowski states that he has â€Å"lived in that [Trobriand Island] archipelago for about two years (†¦), during which time [he] naturally acquired a thorough knowledge of the language. [He] did [his] work entirely alone, living for the greater part of the time right in the village. † (1966: xvi). This statement already contains the essence of participant observation in fieldwork. The hallmark of this methodological way of collecting data is the immersion of the researcher into her or his field of study over a long period of time and the personal part taking in the interactions of the people in the community studied. When Malinowski defined this new approach of ‘first-hand’ observation he broke with the, at that time prevailing tradition of ‘armchair’ ethnography. In this prior approach, ethnographers compiled data gained from historical sources to deduce theories about certain aspects of a usually ‘native’ community (Osterhoudt 2010). One of the main contributions of Malinowski’s new method to anthropological theory was that by participating and observing behaviour in the sample community he found out that a discrepancy between actual behaviour and narrative statements exists. â€Å"The smoothness and uniformity, which the mere verbal statement suggest as the only shape of human conduct, disappears with a better knowledge of cultural reality. † (Malinowski 1979: 83). This discovery in itself already composes a point of criticism towards the preceding ethnographical ‘arm-chair’ approach to data collection and evaluation. Even though participant observation is based on a seemingly broad and intuitive research design, it would, however, be incorrect to assume that this approach would be free of any directive principles on how to collect relevant data. Therefore, Malinowski describes how first, the researcher must â€Å"possess real scientific aims† (Malinowski 1966: 6) and be familiar with the theoretical background of anthropology. Further, the researcher should live in the field among the natives all by herself/ himself, and lastly the researcher has to stick to special and strict scientific methods, such as drawing â€Å"tables of kinship terms, genealogies, maps, plans and diagrams† (idib. 1966: 10) to collect, prepare and record her/his data. The previous example of the clan system provides a sense of the detailed and case specific information that is obtained by the application of participant observation. Besides the kind of the data collected, it should also be looked at the area of research and Malinowski’s suggestion of the subject to be studied. He proposes that the â€Å"field worker observes human beings acting within an environmental setting, natural and artificial; influenced by it, and in turn transforming it in co-operation with each other. † (Malinowski 1939: 940). Thus, he focuses on the individual as a starting point and its relation to, and mutual dependence on a social group. The inquiries of a researcher will hence have to include a â€Å"specific study of the individual, as well as the group within which he has to live and work. † (idib. 1939: 950). The collective life within that group or society is widely to be seen in certain types of activities, ‘institutions’ such as the â€Å"economy, education, or social control and political system in place† (idib. 1939: 954). These institutions, as he points out, can be seen as a fruitful base to investigate the individual’s motives and values and they will provide â€Å"insight into the process by which the individual is conditioned or culturally formed and of the group mechanisms of this process. † (idib. 1939: 954). II. Grand Theory In the following, the dictum ‘grand theory’ will be specified and by doing so distinguished into two different tendencies of understanding the concept. Wiarda (2010) defines a grand theory in his book Grand Theories and Ideologies in the Social Sciences as â€Å"those large, overarching explanations of social and political behavior—liberalism, Marxism, socialism, positivism, corporatism, political culture, institutionalism, psychoanalysis, rational choice theory, environmentalism (Jared Diamond), sociobiology, and now chemistry and genetics—that give coherence to the social sciences, help us to organize and think about change and modernization, and give us models to understand complex behavior. † (Wiarda 2010: x) This definition of grand theory as an ‘overarching explanation’ is in line with Anthony Good’s (1996) understanding of a ‘generalizing science’ that produces â€Å"universal, descriptive and predictive laws† (idib. 1996: 34). Here a grand theory is understood as a theorem providing a universal and structural framework that gives meaning to particular and individual phenomena ‘on the ground’. In this process the â€Å"importance of the local and the contingent, (†¦) the extent to which our own concepts and attitudes have been shaped† (Skinner 1985: 8) builds also a part of the universal framework. The second tendency to conceive the idea of grand theory goes a step further and is mainly characterized by C. Wright Mills application of it. He vigorously criticised the concept in his book The Sociological Imagination (1959): â€Å"The basic cause of grand theory is the initial choice of a level of thinking so general that its practitioners cannot logically get down to observation. They never, as grand theorists, get down from the higher generalities to problems in their historical and structural contexts. This absence of a firm sense of genuine problems, in turn, makes for the unreality so noticeable in their pages. † (idib. 1959: 33) As this quote shows, Mills’ understanding of a grand theory goes beyond our first definition. In this second understanding Mills implies that scientists generating grand theories are engrossed in their endeavour to build abstract, normative and all-embracing frameworks and thus neglect the study of the ‘meaning’ behind their constructs. The individual with its particular values and interpretations, as well as variety on the scale of the actual area of research fall behind. III. Participant Observation and its relation to Grand Theory Taken the just outlined conception of grand theory influenced by Mills and putting it in relationship with Malinowski’s methodology of participant observation, the answer to our question whether or not Malinowski’s heritage barred the way of Anthropology to ever produce grand theories appears unambiguously to be ‘yes’. Participant observation in its very nature is close to the individual and aims to explore, over a long period of time, which social and cultural forces influence the human being in a specific setting. Therefore, with regards to Mills conception of grand theory, Anthropology has a birth defect called participant observation that will always prevent it from producing highly abstract grand theories, which stand in no relation to the circumstances from where they were deduced from. A closer look reveals that Malinowski’s understanding of the anthropological formation of theory aligns with Mills criticism towards highly abstract grand theories: â€Å"It would be easy to quote works of high repute, and with a scientific hall-mark on them, in which wholesale generalisations are laid down before us, and we are not informed at all by what actual experiences the writers have reached their conclusions. (†¦) I consider that only such ethnographic sources are of unquestionable scientific value, in which we can clearly draw the line between, on the one hand, the result of direct observation and of native statements and interpretations and on the other, the inferences of the author, based on his common sense of psychological insight. † (Malinowski 1966: 3) Here Malinowski differences between two approaches of data processing. One approach leads to mere ‘wholesale generalisations’ and the other approach also includes the ‘actual experiences’ the researcher faced on the local level that explain on what assumptions and observations her or his generalizations are based on. He hence supports the notion of Anthropology as a science of producing generalisations, as long as they are comprehensible and in direct relation to the reality on the ground. Malinowski’s ethnographies exist to a vast amount of descriptive details that are very specific to certain social groups or individual preferences and he has hence often been criticized as an ‘empiricist’ (see Firth 1957). Also, one could argue that his attempt to put his findings in a neat structured box with columns, as he has done in his article Group and Individual in Functional Analysis (1966) seem rather compelled. Nevertheless, he was able to provide social science with universal and generalizing frameworks on, inter alia, on how social institutions function in relation to society. He states that â€Å"social institutions have a definite organisation, (†¦) they are governed by authority, law and order in their public and personal relations, while the latter are, besides, under the control of extremely complex ties of kinship and clanship. † (Malinowski 1966: 10). Malinowski’s suggestion to use institution as a starting point for social and cultural analysis has â€Å"produced integrated descriptions instead of loosely classified catalogues of traits, and has stimulated the fuller recording of case material from actual behavior as a supplement to the listing of ideal patterns. † (Murdock 1943: 443). Following Malinowski’s ethnographic method and theory construction therefore aims to create a firm framework of the â€Å"social constitution† that â€Å"disentangle[s] the laws and regularities of all cultural phenomena from the irrelevances. † (Malinowski 1966: 10f. ). His approach is thus far more that only an accumulation of meaningless observations of an individuals life in a very specific society. Considering these arguments, Malinowski approach can, indeed, be seen as congruent with our first tendency to understand grand theory. The answer to our initial question should hence be that Anthropology is a science that can certainly produce grand theories in the sense of generalized frameworks and universalistic theories, without neglecting the importance of the â€Å"local and the contingent† (Skinner 1985: 12). Furthermore, Anthropology can be viewed as an established science with its own field of study being the human being and its social group as well as their mutual dependencies and influences. â€Å"Anthropology stands in a clear relationship to the other basic science, because it is concerned with studying phenomena at one clearly discriminate level vis-a-vis those other sciences. † (Good 1996: 32) IV. Conclusion and Outlook As just set out, if the question is, if participatory observation was the downfall of grand theory in the anthropological work field, my answer to it would be ‘no’, depending on the definition of grand theory. The science of Anthropology certainly had to withstand some rough winds of criticism, for instance as Wood (1996) lays out, with its strong focus on ‘meaning’ and â€Å"actors’ understanding of ‘facts’ rather than ‘facts’ themselves† (idib. 1996: 31). Some might even buy into Radcliff-Browns (1977) proposal that due to its inconsistency of attribution of meaning to commonly used scientific terms â€Å"social anthropology reveals itself as not yet a formed science. † (idib. 1977: 28). In my opinion, however, it was not the launch and implementation of participant observation as introduced by Malinowski in the late twenties of the 20th century that caused a rupture in Anthropology as a grand theory producing science. A more significant menace came 50 years later when Malinowki’s diaries that he wrote, while he was conducting research at the Trobriand Islands were published. These diaries unveiled the he spend a lot of time with Europeans during his fieldwork, and it unfolds the emotional difficulties that Malinowski as fieldworker experienced. Statements such as â€Å"this drives me to a stage white rage and hatred for bronze-colored skin† (Malinowski 1989: 261) imply that he was a man thinking in discriminating racial terms, who did not have such a good rapport with the people he studied after all. These disclosures and inconsistencies between his ethnographies and his emotional encounters raised serious doubts on the validity of Malinowski’s theoretical conception and methodological approach of participant observation, and thus questioned the anthropological stance as an established science in general. Especially James Clifford’s critique on Malinowski and his later to be published book Writing Culture: The Poetics and Politics of Ethnography (1986), together with George Marcus has created a controversy and critical debate with a strong impact on the anthropological work field. The writing culture debate resulted in a ‘crisis of representation’ that implied to question every ethnographical voice. This shaped a new postmodern â€Å"genre of self-reflective research report† (Clifford 1993: 119; trasnl. C. R. ), where the unanimous voice of the author has to be subject to a consistent reflexion process and the emphasis is put on polyphony and complexity. In my opinion, this postmodern ‘angst’ of the anthropological author to be too determinate in her or his statements and conclusions, led to a trend that was far more hazardous to Anthropology as a grand theory producing science, than the introduction of Malinowski’s participant observation methodology. To make myself clear, I am not claiming that the criticism on Malinowski’s diaries and the postmodern episode was in itself a curse on Anthropology. I highly value the positive impact it had, such as, inter alia, the sensitization of the ethnographer. He or she has to be aware of her or his own position of power in the society studied, and her or his mutual influences on the informants. However, when it comes to extracting and generating universal laws, I believe it is majorly important for Anthropology as a science to not dwindle in a postmodern bulge of relativizations, but confidently create grand theories with regards to the actual phenomena observed. Thus, I strongly agree with Anthony Good (1996) who states that â€Å"if anthropology is not a generalizing science, it is not worth doing. † (idib. 1996: 30; italics in original). Bibliography Clifford, James; Marcus, George E. , (1986) â€Å"Writing Culture. The Poetics and Politics of Ethnography. †, Berkley,: University of California Press Clifford, James, (1993) â€Å"Halbe Wahrheiten† In: Rippl, Gabriele (Hg. ): Unbeschreiblich weiblich: Texte zur feministischen Anthropologie, Frankfurt am Main,: Fischer-Taschenbuch-Verl. Firth, Raymond, (1957) â€Å"Man and Culture: An Evaluation of the Work of Malinowski†, New York,: The Humanities Press. Good, Anthrony, (1996) â€Å"For the Motion: Social Anthropology is a Generalizing Science or it is Nothingâ€Å" from Ingold, Tim (ed. ), Key Debates in Anthropology pp. 30-36, Oxon,: Routledge.

How to Change Your Oil

Michael Marcel Informative Speech Outline Topic: Changing engine oil Specific Purpose: To inform my audience about the three steps to changing their engine oil. Central Idea: The three steps in changing engine oil are gathering the necessary supplies, draining and filling the oil, and safely disposing of the oil. Introduction l. Have you ever been stranded on the side of the road? It's never a good thing. Keeping up with your vehicle maintenance is a very important element. According to the car research website Edmunds. Com states the majority of automakers call for oil hangers at either 7,500 or 10,000 miles.II. Vehicle repairs are getting more expensive by the year. Preventative maintenance will definitely cut back on those costs for you. Ill. I personally have been changing the oil in my truck at every 3,000 to 4,000 miles since I was sixteen years old. IV. Today I would like to inform you of the three major steps in changing your engine oil, which are gathering the necessary supp lies, draining and filling the oil, and safely disposing of the oil. Transition: Let's start with gathering the supplies for your oil change. Body l. Before actually beginning the oil change there are a few things to take care of.A. Find out and purchase the right amount of oil for your vehicle. B. Buy a new oil filter for the make and model of your vehicle. C. You will need a drain pan, a wrench for the oil drain plug, and possibly an oil filter wrench depending on how tight your filter is. Transition: Now that we know the necessary supplies to change your oil, let's talk about removing and replacing the old oil. II. There are four steps to follow for taking the used oil out of your car and replacing it. A. Place the drain pan under your car and remove the old oil filter. B.Loosen the oil drain plug with the normal wrench and let the oil drain into your pan. C. Replace the drain plug and install the new filter. D. You can now fill the oil back to your cars specifications from under the hood. Transition: Now that your oil is changed there are still a few steps left. Ill. In the U. S. , the California recycling website states less than 60 percent of used oil is recycled. Now it is time to dispose of your used oil. A. You should avoid prolonged contact with the used oil. Used oil can contain toxic substances such as benzene, lead, zinc, and cadmium. B.Always be aware of the temperature of the oil you're handling. C. Most local auto shops have an oil-recycling center. It is also important to recycle the filter. Recycle-steel. Org states that if all the filters sold across the U. S. Annually were recycled we would recover roughly 160,000 tons of steel. That's enough steel to build sixteen new stadiums the size of Atlanta's Turner Field. Conclusion l. In conclusion today I have told you the three steps to changing your oil, which are adhering the necessary supplies, draining and filling the oil, and safely disposing of the oil.II. I hope this has inspired you to st art saving a little time and money by changing your own oil.

A Look at the Drive and Will Power of Frederick Douglass and Chris McCandless

A Look at the Drive and Will Power of Frederick Douglass and Chris McCandless It is sometimes said that nothing in life that is worth having comes easily. I have noticed that what often separates those who attain their hopes and dreams from those who do not is that they possess a certain drive and determination to stop at nothing to achieve those dreams. Although the two individuals Chris McCandless and Frederick Douglass lived in different time periods, and grew up in totally different environments, they possessed the will to overcome whatever obstacles life presented them and achieved the goals that they set for themselves. Chris McCandless was determined to live an unconventional, nomadic lifestyle like those of his idols Henry David Thoreau, Boris Pasternak, and the Jules Verne character Captain Nemo. Growing up, he waited until the time was right to begin his journey across the country and into the wilderness. John Krakauer wrote: Five weeks earlier hed loaded his belongings into his car and headed west without an itinerary. The trip was to be an odyssey in the fullest sense of the word, an epic journey that would change everything. He had spent the previous four years, as he saw it, preparing to fulfill an absurd and onerous duty: to graduate from college. At long last he was unencumbered, emancipated from the stifling world of his parents and peers, a world of abstraction and security and material excess, a world in which he felt grievously cut off from the raw throb of existence. (22) Later in the book we were again given a glimpse of Chriss gritty determination to achieve a goal that he had set for himself. During his travels Chris stopped in the small dusty town of Tapock, Arizona. It was there that he noticed an old secondhand canoe which he purchased in an attempt to float from Lake Havasu to the Gulf of California. During this adventure down the Colorado River Chris traveled through the Colorado River Indian Reservation, the Cibola National Wildlife Refuge, and the Imperial National Wildlife Refuge, and across the border into Mexico. He was unaware of the fact that once in Mexico the Colorado River turns into a maze of irrigation canals, marshland, and dead end channels. At one point he follows a map drawn by a group of Mexican canal officials he had met to no avail. He found himself at a dead end in the middle of the desert. He did not give up though. Instead he carried his canoe and gear for three days to a new canal to continue his quest for the sea. After traveling for several more days Chris once again found himself lost and stuck in swampy marshland. By chance he met a group of duckhunters who after hearing his tale of wrong turns and dead ends agreed to take him to the small fishing village of El Golfo de Santa Clara, located on the Gulf of California (34-35). At several points along the way Chris could have easily given up his quest and turned back, but he would not allow himself to fail. This is the same type of determination that can be seen in Frederick Douglass. Frederick Douglass was born a slave in Tuckahoe, Maryland during the early 1800s. He was eventually sent to Baltimore to live with his new master and mistress. It was there that Douglass found the key by which he could unlock the bonds of slavery and revel in the freedom that few of his peers would ever come to know. Douglass wrote, Mistress, in teaching me the alphabet, had given me the inch, and no precaution could prevent me from taking the ell (31). He remained true to his words over the next couple of years and used an ingenious plan to take every opportunity possible to learn to read and write. Douglass was often called upon by his mistress to run various errands throughout the day. He found that if he hurried up and got his errands done quickly he had a few minutes that he could use to get a lesson. He carried with him bread and a book. He would make friends with the white kids in the streets by bribing them with the food and in return in they would teach him what they could. Douglass described the scenario, This bread I used to bestow upon the hungry little urchins, who, in return, would give me that more valuable bread of knowledge (32). What a great plan to use the most basic of human needs, hunger, and the kids naivety to gain the most valuable of assets that a slave could hope for, but he wasnt done. Frederick not only wanted to read, but he was also driven to learn how to write. Once again he used a cunning plan to reach this goal. Douglass described the how he learned to write as follows: The idea as to how I might learn to write was suggested to me by being in Durgin and Baileys ship-yard, and frequently seeing the ship carpenters, after hewing, and getting a piece of timber ready for use, write on the timber the name of that part of the ship for which it was intended. When a piece of timber was intended for the larboard side, it would be marked thus-L. When a piece was for the starboard side, it would be marked thus-S. A piece for the larboard side forward, would be marked thus-L.F. When a piece was for starboard side forward, it would be marked thus-S.F. For larboard aft, it would be marked thus-L.A. For starboard aft it would be marked thus-S.A. I soon learned the names of these letters, and for what they were intended when placed upon a piece of timber in the ship-yard. I immediately commenced copying them, and in a short time was able to make the four letters named. After that, when I met with any boy who I knew could write, I would tell him I could write as well as he. The next word would be, I dont believe you. Let me see you try it. I would then make the letters which I had been so fortunate as to learn, and ask him to beat that. In this way I got a good many lessons in writing, which it is quite possible I should never have gotten in any other way Thus after a long, tedious effort for years, I finally succeeded in learning to write. (34-35) I think what amazes me the most about both of these individuals was the time period over which they continued to st rive for their goals. They both forged ahead over the course of months and years gaining whatever advantages and overcoming any obstacles they were presented with, staying focused on the final outcome. This type of determination and will power is inspiring to me, as in this day and age more people seem to have trouble setting goals, or staying focused on achieving them for any extended time period.

Has terrorism ever succeeded in changing political reality Essay

Has terrorism ever succeeded in changing political reality - Essay Example To those subjected to that terror under the blade of the guillotine or through other, slower methods of torture, that was a rather dubious honor. The paradox remains today in any attempt to discover whether or not terrorism has achieved its political ends. Webster’s dictionary defines â€Å"terrorism† as â€Å"the use of terror and intimidation to gain one’s political objectives† (Websters, 1995). This is a fairly rational and non-judgmental definition of the word, and perhaps because of the objectivity of the statement, virtually every country in the world could be said to have used â€Å"terrorism† as a tactic many times. Every war uses terrorism on a massive scale according to this definition. Those people that are defined as â€Å"terrorists† today just happen to be rather ineffective in their killing methods (compared to sovereign countries) and have a purer political ideology than most of them. Al Quaeda killed around 3000 people on 9/11/2001, the Madrid bombers killed 192 people on 3/11/2004 and the London bombers killed 52 on 7/7/2005 (White, 2005). These figures would have been laughably small for any of the countries that deliberately bombed one another’s civilian populations in WWII. The German, American, Japanese and British authorities would have had severe questions for any bombing mission that came back with these paltry numbers. By way of comparison, more than the total 9/11 deaths die every month on American roads. So neither the method of killing, nor the numbers seem to suggest that â€Å"terrorist† is an easily definable word. This situation is complicated by the fact that all terrorist crimes would be crimes whether one precedes the word with terrorist or not. Killing another human being without justification is a criminal offence in Britain (Homicide Act, 1977), and so is attempting to kill them or to cause injury to them. The question that needs to be asked when dealing with

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Source evaluation - Essay Example As seen in this crowdsourcing article, collaboration and online organisation is the main objective of this project. Over and above, the theme of internet collaboration and organisation is vivid in all the chapters in the book. This book source is therefore, reliable and useful to students and researchers (Pallof, & Pratt 43). This is because it highlights the basis of learning community via the internet, innovativeness and critical thinking skills it fosters to the internet users. â€Å"The online environment can be a lonely place. Students and faculty alike report feelings of isolation when working online. The benefits of taking or teaching an online class - being able to connect any time and any place, from one’s bedroom in pajamas and bunny slippers or from a library or computer lab – also can be a detriment of sorts given that, for the most part, the people with whom one is interacting are represented by worlds on a screen.† (Pallof, & Pratt, 32) This is an easy to read book where the author, Pallof, & Pratt have taken their ample time to showcase their vivid thoughts and reflection towards online collaboration. They clearly indicate that collaboration and internet organization is the backbone of the media in the present day. The fact that the book highlights the process of media embracing the digital technology in a means to spread out their audiences is a clear sign of contemporary/modern networking and collaborative development. In reference to Pallof, & Pratt (2005), focus is put on using technical and internet related channels to bring people together for their own success. As seen in the book, the authors Pallof, & Pratt (2005), have managed to fill the gap in the internet world by spreading out to digital channels of communication that targets the old internet users and further brings about new internet users for collaborative purpose: The ways in which

Evian Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Evian - Essay Example Various film actors and celebrities have participated in the ads as well as designing of the bottle for Evian at different times. An example is Sebastian Siegel, the film actor who was painted by Joanne Gair to look like a stone (Vaidyan, 2012). The particular target audience of Evian bottled water are young rich people. As it is essentially a luxury mineral water brand and advertises its product through young, famous, and rich celebrities, consumers of Evian typically belong to the high class society. â€Å"With evian firmly established in the tennis world through its global brand ambassador Maria Sharapova, and ongoing sponsorship of The Championships, Wimbledon, activity during The Championships needed to reflect the iconicity of the brand† (Gorkana Group, 2013). As per the findings of the consumer research, the target audience of Evian read the fashion and style magazines regularly (Gorkana Group, 2013). Evian is particularly popular among people who are well-informed on what is in

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Environmental Science Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Environmental Science - Essay Example The pollution of the environment is caused by residential, commercial, and industrial wastes. These include Carbon dioxide (COÂ ­2)), Carbon monoxide (CO), Nitrogen, and Chlorofluorocarbons (CFC’s) (ENERGY.GOV, 2014). The release of such compounds into the environment leads to environmental degradation. Therefore, it is prudent for human beings to take necessary steps in preventing any further damage to the environment and mitigate on the damages that have already occurred. This responsibility is a concern of the international community, respective governments, and every individual. The individuals can work hard to care for the environment by participating in environmental conservation measures. It is important for individuals to take care of the environment because it is where they live. Polluted air means that there would be an increase in respiratory diseases. Furthermore, polluted soil, full of chemicals and fertilizers, will result into crops with high levels of toxic su bstances and pollute the water bodies when these fertilizers are washed into streams and rivers. This paper explores three goals and action plans, which an individual can use to become more aware of environmental issues and human impact on the environment. The production of electricity often involves a lot of emission of gasses, which cause considerable damage to the environment. Therefore, an individual should bear this in mind when operating electrical appliances. This can involve a slight change in their habits or using more energy efficient appliances. For example, change of habits include: Using cold water to wash laundry and hanging them out to dry instead of using the dryer. This habit will ensure that when doing laundry, less electric energy is consumed, and the one utilizes the abundant natural energy of the sun to dry the clothes Installing energy efficient bulbs, which save more energy and are longer lasting as compared to incandescent light

How to use social media to promote the business Essay

How to use social media to promote the business - Essay Example To gain important information about how social media will be applied to the marketing strategy of Tazaki Sushi restaurant, I included a question in the feedback catalogue about how the customers found out about the organization. An analysis of how competitors were using social media was also conducted based on their presence in existing social media platforms. Organizations that have successfully used social media to attract customers to their services have includes aspects such as creating fan page on Facebook, Twitting different aspects of their operations to customers, developing blogs and creating alert Google systems that give feedback on activities related the organization in different online avenues. Consequently, Tazaki Sushi restaurant should Tazaki Sushi restaurant adopt these measures to be able to improve its awareness which will translate into more customers especially since the restaurant has a reputation of offering high quality services. It is recommended that Tazaki Sushi restaurant should have regular update of its website as an important source of information for more current services offered by the organization. Increased presence in social media should also be accompanied by promotions and incentives to increase the level of activities carried out in these avenues. Tazaki Sushi is a Japanese restaurant located in Sunset area in San Francisco. The restaurant has good reputation by providing high quality service and reasonable price to its customers. Normally, repeat customers were a major source of business for the restaurant. However, the restaurant has not gained much recognition, not many people know about the restaurant except the repeat customers. Given the increased competition in the area of authentic traditional cuisine (Ebster and Guist 42), Tazaki Sushi should develop a practical solution to the

Mid Term Exam (there are 4 questions) Scholarship Essay

Mid Term Exam (there are 4 questions) - Scholarship Essay Example The sum of these roles covers all aspects of managerial performance though Mintzberg was careful enough to state that they might not describe the process of managing comprehensively. Mintzberg (1973) defines the role as "a set of certain behavioral rules associated with a concrete organization or post" (p.36) and groups the manager's roles into the three large blocks: interpersonal, informational and decisional. Each of these blocks consists of several roles: Figurehead - involves obligation of manager to act as symbolic head performing many routine duties (social or legal). This role is inspirational and activities associated with it are not central to the manager's job. Leader - involves responsibility for motivating of employees and also staffing, training, development and associated duties. This role is especially important during organization of group: it facilitates adequate integration between organizational goals and individual needs of subordinates. Each of these roles is important and may be viewed as the most essential for a manager under a specific set of circumstances. Therefore, ranking them in order of importance is a very difficult task. One possible way to fulfill this task is to use the existing models of managerial work as the basis. Thus, one of the most popular models of management known as POLCA includes planning, organizing, leading, controlling and assessing (Morgan, 1986). This model suggests that Mintzberg's roles may be ranked as follows: Resource allocator (planning), Liaison (organizing), Leader/Figurehead (leading), and Monitor (controlling and assessing). However, when an organization faces inevitable changes other roles such as Disseminator or Disturbance handler may be more important than others. 2. Managers sometimes make poor decisions because of cognitive bias in their decision-making process. Discuss three of the four sources of bias that can adversely affect the ability of managers to make a good decision, and illustrate each of them with a realistic business decision-making situation. Cognitive biases represent a broad group of observer effects that often distort our perception of phenomena related either to external environment or inner world of human being. There are several categories of

The length of a wire affects its resistance Essay Example for Free

The length of a wire affects its resistance Essay I predict that by keeping the voltage the same, the amp measurements will have a strong relationship, but by using only one voltage might be the subject of ohms law not to work. It may also be proven that by raising the length of the piece of wire the relationship between the resistance will be that, the longer the wire the less resistance happening. Equipments used   Amp meter   Volt meter (set at 4 volts)   Power pack (also set at 4 volts) Experiment After setting up the equipment, I set out the circuit provided on the board. I then drew a result table to record my results and began my experiment. I set the voltage on the power pack to 4 and clipped a crocodile clip on one end of the wire, reading 0 cm on the ruler. Then I put the other crocodile clip on the piece of wire that read 10 cm on the ruler. To get my result though I still had to move my resistor to get the se3t voltage on my volt meter (which is 4 volts). Once I achieve this voltage, I looked at the amp meter to see what amp measurement I had achieved. After writing my reading down in my table, I move the moved the crocodile clip at the reading of 10cm on the ruler and moved it to 20 cm then repeated the whole process I had just done to get the reading for 20cm. Then I did the same process for 30cm to 90cm. once I had done this I looked at my results table to see if I could form a relationship between my results, but after looking them I couldnt really think of a positive relationship with out any other results to compare with, but with saying that I could see a small relationship there, that the resistance goes down when the length of wire goes up. Length of wire (cm) Number of experiment 1 2 3 Resistance. So to make sure that I had a relationship I redid the experiment again (twice) to see if my theory was try on all three tests. Length of wire (cm) Number of experiment 1 2 3 Resistance By looking at my results I came to the conclusion that my little theory was the longer the piece of wire the smaller the resistance true but that wasnt the end of my test. I had to find out how many ohms were in each measurement. But first I took my table and found the average measurement for the resistance. Length of wire (cm) Number of experiment 1 2 3 Resistance Average Then I moved to do Ohms law, in order to do this I had to take the equation V=IxR and turn I round to get the number of ohms, so the end equation was R=V/I so I did this to all of my results in my table, to get Length of wire (cm). Number of experiment 1 2 3 Resistance Average   then put these results in to a graph to get one looking like figure 1. 2. Conclusion By looking at my graph I would say that my prediction is correct because the length of a piece of wire does affect the resistance of the voltage going throw it. Evaluation. I would say that I could improve investigation by adding more detail on what I did and how I did it. I could also research more information on how to conduct my investigation further. I should have spent more time collecting information and results, which would have made my test fairer than it was all though I did do my test 3 times because I still dont think that my test was fair enough. Kassandra McDonald Show preview only The above preview is unformatted text This student written piece of work is one of many that can be found in our GCSE Electricity and Magnetism section.

How Successful are Pap Smears?

How Successful are Pap Smears? How successful are pap smears in detecting cervical and uterine cancers? George Nicholas Papanicolaou established the Pap smear in the 18th century when he became intrigued by the guinea pigs vaginal smears as he was studying them. He quickly began to start his research on the female reproductive system, most specifically the different cytology slides he could obtain. His stake in the field was his book published in 1943, â€Å"Diagnosis of Uterine Cancer by Vaginal Smear.† It covered topics like physiological changes of a menstrual cycle, the hormones incorporated, and vaginal smears that led to his classifications of disease and malignancies. This jump started the screening for cervical cancer and can attest to a significant decline in cases of cervical cancer. Later, he published another book specific to just distinguishing between healthy and diseased tissue throughout the entire body. These two publications were just two of the four he finished in his life on top of awards and honorary degrees. (Tan, 2015) Papanicolaou was certainly a huge help in the advancement of cytology reporting. Since then, we have been able to learn and understand more about pap smears, cervical cancer and the role pap smears plays in diagnosing them. Although both cancers begin in the same area, the uterus; we can differentiate them by their pathophysiology’s. The question really stands, how successful are pap smears in detecting these cancers? This can be argued on a few bases, but sticking to the facts we can find out how successful they are, how they can be preventive, and what to expect if a woman does find herself diagnosed. Several factors can be taken into account such as the pathogenesis, level of disease, the manifestations, precipitating factors, and several more. Uterine and Cervical cancers both come with their own etiologies, epidemiology’s and prognosis. There are a few different ways to screen for cervical cancer, and this will look directly into the Pap smear procedure. The Pap smear allows for a better look into the cells in the cervix, the opening of the uterus. The test is looking for cancerous and abnormal cells that could lead to cancerous outcomes. In the test an obstetrician- gynecologist will scrape away a portion of cervix cells. The use of a speculum helps the doctor keep the walls of the cervix open to have a clear view and retrieve a good sample. The specimen will then be tested in a controlled laboratory setting where a technician will observe for abnormalities. An official cytology report will be sent to the doctor and then given back to the patient for further counsel if needed. Results will be abnormal or negative (normal). Several sources believe the Pap smear to be very accurate in the screening of cervical cancer. It also is a very preventive measure to take, as long as the patient is compliant with the doctor’s guidelines. By detecting cervical cancer early, treatment can begin to decrease the risk of spreading and growth of the tumors. Pap smears have been estimated to reduce cervical cancer rates and mortality by 80%. (Weber, 2017) In comparison, up to 80% of women diagnosed with invasive cervical cancer have not received a pap smear in the past 5 years. (Stà ¶ppler) CIN or, cervical intraepithelial neoplasia is a precancerous condition of abnormal cell growth on the cervix. Intraepithelial means that the abnormal cells are growing on the surface or the epithelial tissue of the cervix. Neoplasia is referring to the growth of new cells. Signs and symptoms can be obvious but can also resemble several conditions that females could encounter. These symptoms can include abnormal vaginal bleeding, bleeding after sexual intercourse, pelvic pain, discharge, and pain during sexual intercourse. (Stà ¶ppler) It is recommended that women start getting pap smears at the age or 21. This is most important if you are HIV positive or have a weakened immune system. (Weber, 2017)   These screenings should continue from ages 21 to 29 with cytology alone every 3 years. From ages 30-65, women should continue cytology screening every three years and add HPV testing. After 65 no screening is necessary as long past screenings are normal and no high risk is present. (Boardman, 2018) Over the years professionals have found it difficult to all be on the same page about reporting. Some levels of abnormal results can include atypia, mild, moderate, severe dysplasia, and carcinoma in situ. The creation of the Bethesda System has given one reporting system for all health care professionals. In 1988 the National Cancer Institute held a conference for the creation of this system, it was then re-evaluated in 2001. There are four major classifications that make it easier for this universal system to work. â€Å"ASC-US: This abbreviation stands for atypical squamous cells of undetermined significance. LSIL: This abbreviation stands for low-grade squamous intraepithelial lesion. Under the old system of classification, this category was called CIN grade I. HSIL: This abbreviation stands for high-grade squamous intraepithelial lesion. Under the old system of classification, this category was called CIN grade II, CIN grade III, or CIS. ASC-H: This means atypical cells are present and HSIL cannot be excluded.† (Stà ¶ppler) CIN cases are most always caused by infection with oncogenic types of HPV or, Human Papillomavirus.   There are 12 known types of high risk HPV, which are the most prevalent associations with cervical cancer. Cervical cancer results from a genital infection with HPV, a known human carcinogen. Because most HPV infections are transient or, passing in and out of existence in a patient, it causes only temporary changes in cervical cells. (National Cancer Institute, 2014)   About 90% of HPV infections clear on their own within months to years with no sequelae. (Boardman, 2108) This makes it difficult to catch the HPV infection and in turn cervical cancer. Too frequent of screenings might be problematic for several reasons. One being that treating these abnormalities thinking it was HPV but that went away anyways would cause unnecessary stress on the patient. Also, putting strain on the cervix several times in any period of time can weaken the tissue and could ultimately affect the woman’s fertility. Interestingly enough, it can take up to 20 years for a persistent infection with a high risk HPV to become cancerous. (National Cancer Institute, 2014) Low risk HPV infections rarely or almost never cause cervical cancer. (Boardman, 2018) However if lesions are found and not treated, they are more than likely to turn into cervical cancer. (National Cancer Institute, 2014) There are different levels of cervical cancer that decipher the progression on epithelial tissue. CIN grade 1 is low grade neoplasia involves around one-third of the thickness of the epithelium. CIN 2 refers to the abnormal changes in about one to two-thirds of the layer. CIN 3 is the most severe affecting over two-thirds of the epithelium. 5% of HPV infected patients will acquire CIN grade 2 or 3 lesions with three years of infection. Only 20% of CIN 3 lesions progress to invasive cervical cancer within 5 years. Only 40% of CIN 3 lesions progress to invasive cervical cancer within 30 years. Genetics can also play a role in a woman’s development of cervical cancer; genetic connection holds fewer than only 1% of cervical cancers. â€Å"Women who have an affected first degree biological relative have a two fold relative risk of developing a cervical tumor compared with women who have a nonbiologic first degree relative with a cervical tumor.† Some specific genetic factors have been shown to be in association. The tumor necrosis factor is involved with cell apoptosis and a high incidence of cervical cancer. Polymorphisms, another gene dealing with apoptosis, have been linked to the increased rate of HPV and in turn, cervical cancer. Cervical cancer is the leading cause of cancer related morbidity in developing countries, but is very uncommon in the United States. â€Å"Since 2004 rates have decreased by 2.1% per year in women younger than 50 years and by 3.1 per year in women 50 years of age and older. ACS reports 12,170 new cases of cervical cancer would be diagnosed in 2012.† Age related demographics from 2004-2006 were highest among women from 50-79. But cervical cancer is possible to be present in any sexually active woman. In terms of race, cervical cancer rates per 100,000 women in the US from 2005-2009 are across the board: Hispanic 11.8, African American 9.8, American Indian/ Alaska Native 8.1, White 8.0 and Asian/ Pacific Islander 7.2. Internationally, 500,000 women are diagnosed every year. Prognosis for cervical cancer is very good, especially when caught early. 5 year survival rates: Stage 1 greater than 90%, Stage 2 60-80%, Stage 3 approximately 50%, and stage 4 less than 30%. Treatment for this type of cancer is usually dependent on age, fertility or pregnancy plans. One procedure, LEEP, the loop electrosurgical excision procedure carries an electrical current through a wire to remove abnormal tissue. Cryotherapy freezes the abnormal tissue. Laser therapy uses a beam of light to remove or even destroy the cells. Conization can also be used with a knife and laser. (Boardman, 2018) In severe cases removal of the uterus, hysterectomy is sometimes necessary. Radiation, chemotherapy and surgery can sometimes be performed in other extreme cases. However like any screening test there is always a risk of inaccuracy in false negatives and false positives. (National Cancer Institute, 2014) In some cases a pap smear can be faulty and must be reported in an official capacity. Some examples of this could be â€Å"drying artifact’ or â€Å"excessive blood.† The person reading the smear could feel these are factors that affect the reading. Inflammation can also be a problem in a Pap smear reading. Inflammation can be from infection or irritation. (Stà ¶ppler) Uterine cancer is defined as the any invasive neoplasm of the uterine corpus and is the most common pelvic gynecological malignancy in the United States. Uterine cancer can also be labeled endometrial cancer. The most common type of uterine cancer specifically is endometrioid adenocarcinomas. (Chiang, 2017) It is believed to have two forms; type 1 or estrogen dependent and type 2, which is estrogen independent. (Holman 2012) Uterine cancer can start in small areas or â€Å"a diffuse multifocal pattern.† Health care professionals can usually diagnose this type of cancer by the spreading pattern of the tumor. Usually the tumor will grow from the original location. This can tell the doctor how far along the cancer is. Later tumor growth is seen through myometrial invasion and movement towards the cervix. The cancer itself can take four different routes to spread outside the uterus. Direct or local extends beyond the uterus. Lymphatic, referring to exposure to the pelvic, para-aortic, and sometimes the lymph nodes. Hematologic goes further reaching the lungs, liver, and bone metastatically. Lastly, â€Å"peritoneal/ transtubular spread results in intraperitoneal implants. Staging of Uterine cancer, like most cancers, will depend on the amount of growth and spreading of the tumors. Clinical stage 1, which is the most common for patients, is strict to the uterus. Stage 2 involves a large amount of the cervix. Stage 3 â€Å" vaginal extension, adnexal mass, and/or suspicious retroperitoneal lymphadenopathy.† Stage 4 accesses the bowel and bladder and some other metastases around the body. Although pap smears are prominent for cervical cancer findings, it is not as helpful in uterine cancer. According to my findings, there are actually no screening regimens for asymptomatic women. The only screening mentioned is a transvaginal ultrasound, which â€Å"determines the thickness in postmenopausal women.† In the suspicion of abnormalities, biopsies can be taken. Uterine cancer usually includes both surgery and radiotherapy. Other treatments follow a hormone regimen. Other forms can use estrogen replacement therapy and Tamoxifen, which is usually used for breast cancer but can be used on endometrium tissue as well. (Holman 2012) Because of the early representation of the cancer, treatment is usually successful and most do not progress past stage 1. Recurrences can happen and usually do within 3 years of the original diagnoses, which occurs in half of patients. (Holman 2012)(Uterine Cancer) Symptoms of uterine cancer can range from genital discharge, pain, weight loss, and change in bladder or bowel movements. However, postmenopausal bleeding is said to diagnose up to 90% of endometrial cancers. Another clinical finding would be glandular cells from a pap smear on a postmenopausal woman. Some risk factors are obesity, nulliparity, and late menopause. Diabetes and hypertension are also conditions that. Less than 5% of this cancer is actually diagnosed when the woman is asymptomatic can increase the risk of uterine cancer. (Uterine Cancer) Most of the patients diagnosed with uterine cancer are obese, which can affect estrogen levels. (Holman 2012) Over 50,000 cases of uterine cancer are diagnosed each year, leading up to 10,000 deaths per year. In women alone, it leads to 4% of deaths related to cancer. 70-75% of cases are diagnosed at stage 1. In 2009, the survival rate for uterine cancer was 83.1%. (Chiang, 2017) A large majority of the population diagnosed are postmenopausal and ages 50-65, average age of 61. White women have the largest risk of uterine cancer in the United States compared to African American, Asian and Hispanic women. However, African American women have a larger rate of death. Interestingly, those women living in Asia or Africa have a much smaller rate of uterine cancer than Asian and African American women in the United States. Smoking actually has been shown to decrease your chance of endometrial cancer. The use of contraceptive pills has also been said to be a protective measure for women. (Holman 2012) In conclusion, Pap Smears can be resourceful ways of detecting cervical cancer but not at large uterine cancers. Pap smears are a great screening method for obstetrician- gynecologists and their patients to catch and prevent cervical cancer. By detecting cervical cancer early, prognosis is very good and very likely in most cases. These quick diagnoses from pap smears and other sources has made cervical cancer a very uncommon cancer related death for women in the United States. Unfortunately for developing countries, lack of medical resources and research has made discovering cervical cancer difficult and fatal. With the Bethesda System doctors from all over can classify cervical cancer the same way. Pap smears are very accurate, but like any screening procedure there is always the risk of false negatives or false positives. Although Pap smears haven’t been shown totally reliable to detect uterine cancer, there are several other methods to find uterine cancer. The most obvious can be the presence of postmenopausal bleeding in women, which diagnoses most of the cases. Transvaginal ultra sound can be used to determine the state of the woman’s uterine tissue. These and a few others have been said to be more reliable than Pap smears. Counterpart to ruling out Pap smear findings, one source does tell that if glandular cells are present than it might be uterine cancer. Like cervical cancer, uterine cancer is most always found in early stages or stage 1 to be exact. This early detection makes it only 4% of cancer related deaths in women. In doing my research it was clear to me that Pap smears are in fact helpful in detecting cervical cancer but not as much in uterine cancer. I only found one source that mentioned findings from a Pap smear for uterine cancer. This was entirely interesting to me because they are in very similar areas of the woman’s reproductive system. In doing more research, it makes sense that a pap smear rarely diagnoses uterine cancer because it starts inside the uterus. The cervix being much lower and away from the uterus makes it easier to obtain cells and much more reliable. Finding cervical cancer can be much more direct and easily obtained. Getting to the uterus safely is much more difficult. In further research I believe it would be interesting to look further into minimally invasive ways to detect uterine cancer. Another topic is using the any findings from a Pap smear in detecting cervical cancer to relate to prevention of uterine cancer. Lastly, the result of cervical and uterine cancer on future pregnancy or on currently pregnant women. Works Cited â€Å"Uterine Cancer.† Uterine Cancer, www.csh.org.tw/dr.tcj/educartion/f/web/Uterine%20Cancer/index.htm. Boardman, Cecelia. â€Å"Cervical Cancer.† Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology, 26 Jan. 2018, emedicine.medscape.com/article/253513-overview. Chiang, Jing. â€Å"Uterine Cancer.† Background, History of the Procedure, Epidemiology, 6 Dec. 2017, emedicine.medscape.com/article/258148-overviewuterine cancer. Holman , Laura. â€Å"The Epidemiology of Endometrial Cancer.† The Epidemiology of Endometrial Cancer, 2012, www.glowm.com/section_view/heading/The%20Epidemiology%20of%20Endometrial%20Cancer/item/236. Stà ¶ppler, Melissa Conrad. â€Å"Pap Smear: Facts About the Procedure, Pain & Guidelines.†MedicineNet, www.medicinenet.com/pap_smear/article.htm#what_is_a_pap_smear_procedure. Tan, Siang Yong, and Yvonne Tatsumura. â€Å"George Papanicolaou (1883–1962): Discoverer of the Pap Smear.† Singapore Medical Journal, Singapore Medical Association, Oct. 2015, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4613936/. Weber, Michael. â€Å"Pap Smear (Pap Test): Reasons, Procedure, & Results.† Healthline, Healthline Media, 13 Mar. 2017, www.healthline.com/health/pap-smear. Should Hate Speech Be Protected as Free Speech? Should Hate Speech Be Protected as Free Speech? Question: Should hate speech be protected by the right of free speech? Introduction Hate speech is a controversial and often misinterpreted term for speech intended to degrade, intimidate, or incite violence or prejudicial action against an individual or a group of individuals based on their race, ethnicity, national origin, religion, sexual orientation, or disability. The term has been taken to cover written as well as oral communication. My starting position is that hate speech is not just one thing; there can be at least four categories of hate speech that we can address. By the end of this essay I hope to have shown sufficiently which, if any, types of hate speech could be protected by the right of free speech. Right to free speech and expression Perhaps in a different era, the two could be seen as distinct, not just by name, but also in context.[1] The right of free speech is a human, political or civil right recognised and appreciated by states and their citizens. It is the right to communicate ones opinions and ideas using ones body and property to anyone who is willing to receive them. It was included in the First Amendment to the United States Constitution.[2] Although freedom of expression is sometimes used within an identical context, it nevertheless includes any act of seeking, receiving and imparting information or ideas, regardless of the medium used. Perhaps the most commonly cited definition is the one given by the United Nations in Art.19 of their UDHR[3] adopted in 1948.[4] Along the same lines, Art.10 of theECHR[5]provides the right to freedom of expression, subject to certain restrictions that are in accordance with law and necessary in a democratic society. It is important to appreciate that the two are largely intertwined, and to be read separately would be of no particular value or help. For the purposes of this essay, I shall regard the two rights as two faces on the same side of a coin. Being part of a group of ideals or social goods even, the right of free speech is not specially protected from other ideals. It has to compete with such rights as right to private life, public security and democratic equality amongst others. There is no precedence that the right for free speech must always prevail. The wording of the First Amendment creates a defence for individuals and a difficulty for the state to regulate similar acts in the United States, as well as a desire to abolish the limitations already imposed by other states.[6] When may the right of free speech be limited? It can easily be imagined that the time, place and way of something being said or written or expressed in any other form is subject to scrutiny as to its appropriateness or inappropriateness respectively that is subsequently reflected in regional legislations. This is not normally objected to. There is another controversial excuse for limiting it and that has to do with its content.[7] A classic example is the prohibition of circulation of Nazi ideas in parts of Europe. This is only to be expected, considering that the UDHR was an attempt to stop the terror witnessed during that war from happening again. It is important however to understand that all is meant by limiting free speech or prohibiting hate speech is not preventing someone from exercising the right, but rather a subsequent punishment. Hate speech The prohibition of hate speech is often anathematised by the advocates for the right of free speech. Following Smolla, it can be generically defined as a speech assault based on race, ethnicity, religion and sexual orientation or preference[8]. Brison attempts to colour it even more by defining it as the speech that vilifies individuals or groups on the same basis and which is face to face vilification or constitutes a group libel[9]. Waldron also believes that hate speech is a form of group defamation[10]. I would think that defamation is more suiting as we have already accepted that hate speech can be manifested both verbally and in writing. When can free speech include hate speech? There is, of course, a number of arguments articulated to justify the importance of including hate speech in the right of free speech, however, lacking space, I will address only the four that I consider of greatest importance. Discovery of truth This argument has two distinct streams of interpretation. According to the first, we come to know more truth if we allow a â€Å"free marketplace of ideas†.[11] Advocates of the second stream claim that allowing discussions promote truth and the interests of the right for free speech more than restrictions, as it allows for comparing and contrasting arguments. Scanlon divides the possible participants in a trade of speech into speaker, audience and bystanders. The value protected by both is truth itself; the speaker has an interest in communicating an opinion; the audience and the bystanders have an interest in evaluating and challenging the said opinion. Central to this argument is the importance of reliable and truthful information since it would be detrimental to knowingly spread opinions based on the unreliable and false information.[12] Note that this argument, like the rest, covers not only the promotion of views and opinions, but also of the communication of facts that do not invite evaluation, such as the names of professors in the University of Essex’s Human Rights department. However, as Schauer points out, this value does not have an a priori precedence over other values.[13] Livelier apprehension and personal development According to J. S. Mill we come to apprehend the truth in a more lively way when we confront people who dispute our beliefs or be confronted by them respectively. â€Å"So essential is this discipline to a real understanding of moral and human subjects that, if opponents to all-important truths do not exist, it is indinspensable to imagine them and supply them with the strongest arguments which the most skilful devil’s advocate can conjure up.†[14] Eric Barendt adds: â€Å"Restrictions on what a man is allowed to say and write, or to hear or read, inhibit the growth of his personality. People will not be able to develop intellectually and spiritually, unless they are free to formulate their beliefs and political attitudes through public discussion, and in response to the criticisms of others.†[15] Greenawalt provides further input: â€Å"By affording people an opportunity to hear and digest competing positions and to explore options in conversations with others, freedom of discussion is thought to promote independent judgment and considerate decision, what might be characterized as autonomy.†[16] The speaker here has an interest in influencing the thought and conduct of others through speech. Furthermore, according to Joseph Raz, the audience has an interest in hearing expressed ideas that may potentially reassure and validate their lifestyles. [17] Democratic participation This has been elaborated best by Cass Sunstein. â€Å"Free speech is to be protected because it facilitates the democratic articulation, aggregation and balancing of interests, and is necessary if the people are to be able to decide for themselves the candidates they think most suitable for public office and the policies that public officials should pursue. This argument links free expression with a ‘commitment to political equality’ and a ‘belief in democratic deliberation’.[18] The argument presupposes that the citizens of a democratic state have the right of free speech and are not negligent in exercising it fully. Democracy translates – loosely – into power of the people and by definition, for the sovereignty of the people to be effective, public opinions should be formulated free of any control or intervention by the government. As such, the speaker’s interest is in providing an opinion on matters of public-political life, while the main audience has an interest in hearing the views of others, and gaining an understanding of political views and preferences. The argument of the right of autonomy In considering a law that prohibits speech, Scanlon writes: â€Å"In order to be protected by such a law a person would†¦ have to concede to the state the right to decide that certain views were false and, once it had so decided, to prevent him from hearing them advocated even he might wish to†[19] He goes on to argue that that since an autonomous person’s reason is sovereign over her own decisions, it is incompatible with her autonomy to be shielded from certain evaluative views, or factual information, even if only to avoid the harm to her of coming to have false beliefs.[20] Greenwald describes such intervention as viewpoint discrimination[21], the very thing that the First Amendment is employed to counter. This corresponds to the right of the audience not to have restrictions on their range of options to choose from in order to formulate an autonomous decision. Let us now examine the kinds of hate speech Targeted vilification Speech directed at specific individuals or small group and with the intention to harm and insult the audience. The speaker consciously selects the wording for its potential to achieve just that.[22] Contrary to what Brison argues, I would argue that it should include non-face-to-face acts, such as cases when is not direct but sufficiently specific.[23] The content itself does not usually qualify adequately as an assertion of fact, expression of an evaluative opinion or even of a valid political preference, since it is usually based on false accusations. Also, the speaker cannot barricade behind the right of autonomy and argue that non-racists are privileged over racists, since having a right of autonomy does not imply having the right to be racist and furthermore clashes with the rights of others to be equally autonomous. It does not encompass the essence of the right, it does not promote the interests that the right seeks to, and it is not what is meant when the right for free speech is interpreted; therefore we can conclude that targeted vilification should not be protected by the right to free speech. Diffuse vilification This is speech directed at a friendly or of mixed sentiments but larger audience than targeted vilification, but nevertheless has the same intentions; to assault individuals based on the group they adhere to, or even the group itself, although they may not be the immediate audience.[24] It usually employs symbols or banners with group specific insults. An example would be the Nazi march in Skokie, a village with a notable population of holocaust survivals and younger Jews. There is an evident intention to cause emotional distress and so, any speech or acts employed and political symbols used could not be excused as such, but as insulting, harmful and intimidating.[25] A fair excuse would be that the allegedly distressed could avoid the march. To what extent this is possible depends on other factors such as prior sufficient advertising and the financial or effort overbearing on the victim’s part. This becomes more apparent when the cost to pay to avoid the distress would mean losing one’s work or avoiding communing areas or even becoming antisocial. This would clearly outweigh the interests of the speaker. Evidently, diffuse vilification promotes free speech interests at a far higher level than targeted vilification; it can take the form of honest – albeit mistaken at times – expression of political and evaluative opinions, precisely because it is not targeted but addressed to a wider audience, which could be proactively met and discussed with an opposing group. Although in its honest and fair form it should be protected by the right of free speech, in my opinion, the government has enough justification to intervene and attempt to control the manner in which it is expressed, and specifically by regulating the prohibition of speech, acts and symbols used for their potential to offend and/or to incite hatred and violence towards another social group. Advocating exclusionary policies Exclusionary policies are those that attempt to exclude certain social groups from equal participation in decision making and full enjoyment of their citizen and political rights. In its extreme form, this could include advocating genocide and ethnic cleansing.[26] The harm caused by a possible adoption and enactment of such policies is not easily outweighed, especially by the arguments for the discovery of truth and of personal development – for obvious reasons. Following the argument for democratic participation, such cases constitute political speech, or part of, which the right of free speech clearly intents to protect. However, allowing the advocating of non-democratic ideals in a democratic society brackets democracy itself. I do not accept that democracy should succumb to such hypocritical arguments. I agree with what Rosenblum terms as militant democracy who attempts to defend itself. [27] Even though state controls on political speech is restricting political equality, a democratic value, it is acceptable to do so when the speaker advocates anti-democratic values, even more so when they are advocating restriction on the political equality of others. From the perspective of the argument for autonomy, it can be argued that people should be allowed to exercise their right as rational sentient beings and consider, reflect upon, and decide for themselves which political speeches to support and which to strike down, without the need to cede their right to do so to any government.[28] However, how empirically justified is, or can, that be? What assures us that citizens will in fact make the right choices? What assures us that citizens will even bring themselves to consider such important and hard matters? Is it not the case that people who do concern themselves with such issues have a prior long time interest in them? How can we be sure that the citizens actually have the necessary mental capacities to fully comprehend the speech and its consequences? A democratic society is successful not only because of alleged equality, but also, because of alleged intellect. Following the notion of militant democracy not only there should be intervention to prohibit anti-democratic elements from exploiting democratic values, but also, there should be intervention to debunk, rebut and expose anti-democratic speeches. If the body of citizens is not able to comprehend it fully, the democratic government, assuming it is able to comprehend it, should step in. In my opinion, although this category is part of the general category of political speech, which the right of free speech intents to protect, it can take the form of anti-democratic speeches and incitement of hatred that may lead to horrid results. To this end, I conclude that this form of speech could be protected under the right of free speech, but the states should reserve their right to intervene in such circumstances that put into danger and jeopardize their very democratic nature. Harmful assertions of fact The notion that free speech should include the right to speak words that insult others, or saying what others do not like hearing, has become part of the modern society’s pop wisdom heirlooms. The combined promotion of the values of truth, democratic participations and autonomy is indispensable, even though we cannot deny that even these assertions can cause grave harm to individuals or groups. A fair objection to protecting these kinds of assertions I have found is what Margalit and Raz call the self-respect and dignity of group members, which are being threatened by such assertions.[29] This links to a reversed interest for personal development on the part of the group members, especially when it comes to social groups identified by ethnicity, where self-dignity and self-respect depends on the dignity and respect assigned to that group by others. However, can it not be said that a Kurdish minority in Turkey or the UK should be exposed for their practice of FGM[30] and to evaluative opinions and scrutiny from the rest of society about it, independently of their other dignity recognition and respect issues? In their extreme form, such factual assertions and evaluative opinions may lead to unjustified hate crimes and violence against innocent members of targeted groups. A classic example is the growing contempt that locals feel against immigrants in most countries. Even if top level surveys manage to prove that economic crisis, health system deterioration or other social harms are caused by immigrants, there is a huge leap from an empirical observation to undemocratic acts of violence. Militant democracy should step in here once again, not only to prohibit and punish such actions, but also, I would argue, to better regulate the matters revealed by such surveys.[31] Despite all these, harmful assertions of fact can be seen as promoting the interests embraced by the right of free speech. Even with harmful – but not extreme – assertions, an available remedy would be counter speech instead of restriction. This is possible because they are not mere vilification, but truthful and empirical assertions of honest intentions and therefore do not cause emotional distress.[32] In my opinion, a government should not be able to intervene by prohibiting the expression of such assertions, but they should be allowed to prohibit and punish individuals who misinterpret such assertions from resulting to hate crimes such as racial attacks. By saying this, one may think that I refuse to consider what some call group libel as hate speech worthy of being punished. This is not the case, since libel, defamation in general, is harmful yet untrue assertion. Even though some may disagree as to the context of vilification, I take it to also have an element of faulty accusations. Conclusion I do not see hate speech to have just one singular face. As I have shown, it can be manifested in many different ways, which can in turn be judged on different grounds. Therefore it is inapplicable to argue that it should be either protected under the right for free speech in its entirety, or not at all. I am of the opinion that some forms of hate speech should be protected by the right of free speech, because of the benefits bestowed to society. Some other forms should not be protected; states should take steps to better inform citizens about the different shades of hate speech and democratically establish legal frameworks to punish the ones that fall on the negative side of the spectrum. [1] Due to the frustratingly large portion of the first draft of my essay spent on citing relevant treaties and articles defining the two rights, and assuming that the reader is familiar with them already, I have decided to include the definitions in footnotes, as they do not count towards the total word count. I do realise that this is inelegant, but I am exercising my right of autonomy to promote my personal interest, namely of not being penalised. Forgive me. [2] First Amendment to the United States Constitution reads as follows â€Å"Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the Government for a redress of grievances.† [3] United Declaration of Human Rights [4] Article 19 of the UDHR states that â€Å"Everyone has the right to freedom of opinion and expression; this right Includes freedom to hold opinions without interference and to seek, receive and impart information and ideas through any media and regardless of frontiers.† [5] European Convention on Human Rights [6] UK: Sec. 18 (1) of thePublic Order Act of 1986; France: Sec 24 of the Press Law of 1881; Denmark: Article 266 (b) of the Danish Criminal Code; The Netherlands: Articles 137 (c) and 137 (d) of the Dutch Criminal Code [7] i.e. the grounds cited in ICCPR and ECHR are content relevant. [8] Smolla, 1991, 152 [9] Brison, 1998, 313 [10] Waldron, 2009, 1600-1601 [11] Justice Holmes’ obiter dictum in Abrams v. United States, 250 U. S. 616 (1919). [12] Cohen (1993: 211, 229). [13] Schauer (1982: 23, 33). [14] Mill [15] Barendt (1985: 14). [16] Greenawalt (1989a: 143-5). [17] Raz (1991: 311). [18] Sunstein (1993: xvi-xvii). [19] Scanlon (1972: 217). [20] Ibid. [21] Greenawalt (1995: 32). [22] Greenawalt (1995: 49). [23] i.e. threatening letters, vandalism and so on and so forth. [24] But may be bystanders. [25] The fact that a march in virtually every other village or even a march in the same place but without the symbols would not constitute diffuse vilification but would rather be political speech only proves the dishonest intentions of the marchers. (Feinberg 1985: 86). [26] With notable examples the anti-Semitic speeches in Nazi Germany, anti-Greek and anti-Armenian speeches in Turkey, 1910-1922 [27] Nancy Rosenblum (2008: 412-455). [28] i.e. the ban of Nazi parties from political life in Denmark [29] Margalit and Raz (1990: 119). [30] Female Genital Mutilation [31] Although not relevant to this essay, I would argue that the right of free move and work is a lot like the right to free speech in the sense that it is important but militant democracy should intervene to prevent it from harming a democratic state. A failed example of this would be Italy’s policy which only allowed a very limited percentage of immigrants. Surely, a middle position would be more successful. [32] For example, a Kurdish should have been able to reflect upon the issue of FGM before encountering an adversary of the practice.

Concept of Drawing as a Medium

Concept of Drawing as a Medium This essay will address the subject of drawing. The main starting point will be the ideas of John Berger on Drawing. These ideas can be summed up into three main concepts: Drawing as observation, drawing as memory and drawing as expressing ideas. Although drawing from observation was of fundamental importance in the past today we see more and more an engagement of drawing with memory and as expression of ideas. This doesnt mean that people dont deal with observational drawing, it means that its practice as it was in the past has become obsolete in the sense of drawing is a starting point as study for a final painting. The introduction of photography and the end of old art academies accelerated this change. This essay will deal mainly with drawing as memory and drawing as ideas. It will first look at artists who use drawing in a more conventional way for ideas and memory. Then it will move on to consider artists who challenge the medium itself (pencil, paper and so on) to push the ide a of drawing to express drawing as memory and drawing as observation. The essay will discuss the distinctions between painting, sculpture and performance as a way of discovering the possibilities of drawing and also to discuss the new expectations of drawing as a medium. The art practice of drawing in the late twentieth century has achieved the status of art in its own right. The approach to drawing is also changing in ways that reflect trends within the art world at large. Many artworks in association with drawing challenge traditional boundaries among media. Secondly, there is self-consciousness about the nature of art and what is involved in the creation of art. I see drawing now at a primarily end of its tradition it can be argued that it no longer stands as drawing to represent. It seems that we are on the verge of anther paradigm shift in drawing, now reflecting an altered view of its nature as a skilled activity, what we now perceive as drawing has been obliterated. By this I mean change for instance, Rauschenbergs Erased De Kooning, an example of change by removal of the drawing. Rauschenberg proved to be going backwards in drawing traditions. The drawing was there and now it is not. This was a kind of rebellion going against traditions, alth ough the drawing may have gone backwards drawing was to go forwards i.e., modernism. The process of change will be discussed. Drawing is discovery John Berger, Berger on drawing, had enabled me to begin research and analyse in depth both the physical and the metaphysical act of drawing. What we draw is not only the subject observed but also what we already know about it. In fact the past experience of the subject affects the way we draw it. Berger further raises the point that will be discussed in this essay; the differences between the actions of drawing and painting. According to Berger the audience can identify with the subject illustrated when confronted with a painting. I will attempt to establish a dialogue on the possibilities of drawing with reference to artistic process. Firstly I will analyse the work of Jackson Pollock as a link to contemporary practice. I have also found it important to research literary theory on the grounds of the process of mark making and the social connotations it has created. The reading of Berger on drawing helped me to begin thinking about some key terms such as drawing as memory, drawing as a way to express or show forth ideas and drawing as observation. It was useful to reflect on the idea of truth in drawing. How truthful can we be when we draw? Do we draw what we see or what we know? Can we overcome our set knowledge of things? I will try to find out more about these issues studying the work of other artists. Artists such as Jackson Pollock, CY Twombly, Susan Collis, Louise Bourgeois and Yves Klein whom will be discussed in this essay distinguish their mark making to be somewhat unknown and less predictable. Their works all would free all external impurities. This essay will examine a process of where drawing stands to date in relation to the past. It seems that drawing is everything it is not just the stimulators of the pencil it is in fact the motif and creation of exploring possibilities within the concept. I want to question that without these familiarities then what is known, as drawing could never have happened. Drawing is a continuous action, commonly known as the before of something. Now drawing is the beginning and the end of concepts. Drawing, when perceived as truth or good is the act of line. This is the common factor that persuades all subject matter to fall in the same category as writing, in the relation to text and image. Conversely, bad drawing is lining by the means of lines, a fact lamentably patent in things as widely divergent. This point permits me to repeat that drawing specifically means to visualize ideas by means of lines. Drawing is discovery; drawing is a way of seeing what is hiding under the surface. If the artist observes what is in front of him then dissects in his minds eye this demonstrates that the artist relies on memory and past observations to draw the subject before him rather than simply examining what lies before him. What we draw is not only the subject observed but must also be what we already know about it. It is the difference between the actions of drawing and painting that need to be explored further, for instance in abstract expressionism the line between subject and artist is subtle in distinction whereas Yves Klein paints with a figure, which will expose the difference in this relation. Drawing into painting chapter One (a discussion with chosen material)and chance There are distinctions between drawing and painting. It seems this became irretrievably blurred when Jackson Pollock started to paint with line in the late 1940S. Bernice rose has stated in the writings of his work that, perhaps, then it would be more precise to say that there is no real dividing line between painting and drawing in his work. Perhaps there is no divide between painting and drawing? The same is being made, the mark or as discussed the line is only been made larger and the feeling is now more intense. Pollock erased the distinctions then pertaining between drawings as a discipline. Referring to Cy Twombly cycles and seasons, reading paragraph, coincidence where Shiff talks about the pencil line as something that is happening, this means that the line is not there to describe or configure things with a narrative aim, i.e. The line is not meant to represent objects belonging to the world. The line is not linked to the act of seeing with Pollock. The line is linked to the act of investigation and drawing as idea and memory. As Pollock would push the boundaries between drawing and painting thus drawing becomes painting and vice versa. Therefore drawing loses its dependence on painting. Twombly would repeat what Pollock had started. Their work both suggests internal feelings and relate in a much deeper way to merely observation. From memory they would represent their emotions going against the conventions of traditional drawing. The line represents and describes feelings and emotions, which seems a constant flux of things that can happen at the same time. Using Twombly as a reference once again, what appears really interesting to me is the constant change in both of their works: lines are constantly erased, changed, redrawn and re-erased. Furthermore it seems to me that the past and the present are a constant dialogue. As Pollock immediately pours the paint medium onto the canvas the expression is different. The raw emotional expression allowed the drawing to become much more complex and indeed most energetic. Now, the conventional sense in his paintings is that they generally neutralize the distinction between figure and ground, a factor closely allied with the theory of the all-over. Because the image evinces no definite form but only a compact, restless texture that appears to continually advance and recede and allows the eye no point of rest, is banal.It remained, however, for Pollock to move from this to a full recognition of pictorial identity of drawing and painting. Furthermore, in his work the effort to bring painted effects into balance with those obtainable in drawings vanishes as both materials of ink and oiled pigment would operate from the same overall conception. The conception that would see the blank paper and the indrawn canvas as comparable visual fields. The aura of drawing surrounding the act of painting almost denies any difference. Looking at Pollocks earlier works contains numerous indicators of the great significance that Picassos work held for Pollock. Looking again at drawing as memory or past knowledge Picasso arouses the interest with themes of sex, beauty and young woman but also reference to the old masters in his work. In the words of Jeffery Hoffeld Picasso displays a panorama of works from the history of his own art. The Title links in with Pollocks idea of drawing as an element of memory but also through drawing as past experiences or past knowledge of a specific subject. Significance in style and development evokes the condition of drawing. The intensity of Pollocks Paintings had clearly evolved through his act of drawing, drawing from an idea in his head, creates this impulsive drawing performancei.e the body moves with every drip and every mark to be made, as though the artist would walk with the drawing he would be come part of the work. This drawing is enriched with energy and feeling that could be connected into painting almost immediately. The line scratches through the figures, the impulsive brush over of marks, and gradually discovers beneath the network of strokes a circular shadow that seems to hover in the pictorial space and yet create depth. The beholder has a sense of a hallucination. Walter Benjamin has suggested that when a drawing entirely uses or covers its supporting ground it can no longer be called a drawing. This can be added to define the characteristics of the overworked nature in his work. This definition to me seems unfair to say it is that act of drawing that relates to figure and ground what becomes of the image is unknown. If we extend the list of artists that have used a similar approach to painting and drawing that like wise experimental dripping, such as Susan Collis an artist who also experiments with accidental drips, attaches to the technique as such. Collis work would seem like careless splashes and stains upon the surface, however with careful inspection these marks would heighten the idea to mislead the viewer as these are counterfeit marks playing with our reactions and our understanding with mark making. For instance, Susan Collis, No. 2(In series), 2004, red glitter and self adhesive Vinyl are an example of the process of replacing the original mark with her own. To live is to leave traces This misleading conception that their may have never been an object or a sheet of paper there, is an argument to raise the point that drawing has been extended it has worked its way of the surface and onto a new. Furthermore, Collis works with marks left by things, the incidental and transient and lending their permanence. No matter what point we might eventually select the fundamental function of Collis work allows us to rethink past experiences in Art history and the change within art concepts. Subject is defined with false conceptions playing on the idea of what is and was may not be reality. Referring back to what Berger has said; drawing from memory , this can relate with the work of Susan Collis as the traces are of objects that where once there she has celebrated the idea of memory, drawing from her memory as a way to discover the past in relation to the present. If confronted by something that has no form, no language, or no place, a familiar analogue steps in; we use one thi ng to describe another.When the artist has no words to describe something drawing can define these lost words both the real and the unreal in visual terms. Gestures of freedom For instance, CY Twombly pushes the limits of drawing and painting with words; it is very hard to classify his work either as painting or drawing. Illustrious and Unknown is what Degas aspired to be, and what Cy Twombly has become. The boundary between drawing and painting becomes blurred into his practice as an artist. Playing on the tension between drawing and painting, Twombly was able to question and redefine what drawing is or what it can be. For instance this challenge to drawing can be seen in his experiments to drawing in the dark. In this way he denies the old principle of drawing that is drawing from observation since the act of looking is invalidated in darkness. This can question; how can the values of drawings be recognized as having reflected changes in the material conditions and technology of drawing?The condition of materials being as much unknown in the dark as his mark analysiss an exciting process with discovering his material. With these examples there is a chang e within how art can be made; Art can be made of anything firmly established, as they would work with a range of materials simultaneously. The dictionary definition of drawing suggests that it is inextricably linked with line. Its clear that drawing and painting both exist simarily in the same worlds, what I distinguish between both of them is the order of similar motifs. These artists discussed so far all relate to drawing as memory and drawing as ideas. After the breakdown of modernism, artist became less concerned with any specific properties with their chosen medium, instead selecting the medium for its compatibility with their particular thesis or proposition. There is and order to maximise the formal potential of their chosen material. We only have to study the work of Marlene Dumas to gain an understanding of the relationship drawing has to painting. Drawing is a vital part of Marlene Dumas oeuvre; by drawing with the line tools of painting her works on paper and the oil paintings echo each other. This is an opportunity to once again blow up the image as said. In this case drawing is a way of getting to understand the image, I use second hand images and first hand emotions. Her paintings differ from her contemporaries who during the 1980s revisited the figure in neo-expressionist work that favoured intoxicating colour. Dumas uses paint as a subversive, anti- conventional means of expression and the figure as a vehicle for achieving these ends. The image is created with the feeling of expressing ideas. She is an artist who works with memory and ideas to work out a dialogue with mark making and story telling. Her paintings become drawings and her drawings become paintings. These paintings make similar marks to a single line in the association with drawing. It is not drawing of an outline as the single brushstrokes acts as a drawing and a painting at the same time. Her materials that she uses obscure new possibilities and meaning the paint, the lines, the ink the drawingThus demonstrating that the line is of importance in both relationships of painting and drawing. The pre-knowledge of her feelings, memories, ideas and associations with the image revert back to the impulsive line. Her direct approach shows the power of the image, which is informed by the immediate gesture of the drawing. The tension that has seemingly been created in the image, we can recognise what is depicted and yet we are not entirely sure about its meaning. As the viewer we are compelled by the poetic nature in movements throughout the image. Other important key terms for the possibilities of drawing are: chance and the relationship child -like/childish drawing. There is an element of chance and randomness in Dumas work, also referring back to Twomblys drawings he too works with the same ideas of chance. As for the relationship child like/childish, Twomblys drawings fall into the first category. In fact as much as one tries to regain the innocent eye of the child one will never succeed because he/she is not a child anymore. In a sense this reminder me of Picassos mission in art as well, i.e. to regain playfulness in the act of drawing. In fact a child is able to create without the concern and the clichà ©s the adult artist is concerned with. It is the coloured pencil drawings of Cy Twombly that the line wonders off back and forth in the distance charming the viewer as the marks turn discreet. We can also see this parallel shift from drawing possibilities with materials into painting in the works of Louise Hopkins. Hopkins work hovers on the boundary between drawing and painting. She is and artist whom describes she will paint rather than being a specified painter. Hopkins delicate approach rejects the traditions to picture making. The result is certainly a drawing in purely technical terms, but at the same time it may represent the drastic function of line, her process of change and use of line is meticulously, one stroke at a time. She never starts with a blank canvas. That fear of being confronted with a problem before the image becomes part of the context. For example, in Untitled (the of the) 2002 Hopkins has taken a broadsheet newspaper and drawn over every single key word and image, leaving behind only the connecting words.The words then become isolated and immediately transformed into a new context. This wonderful image has the feeling of a night sky with nothing b ut stars connect with. However maintains its aim with undeniable pattern, rhythm and form. Hopkins ground has been inked out; leaving behind its signifiers, the notes, which are there, but the song has been interrupted with this blocking out technique, which seems a repetitive process. White black black white explains in its title the process of repetition; Hopkins repeats her actions on the surface developing its contrasts and rhythm. This process has created a different kind of rhythm, played out but the white circles and lines framing the musical notation. This seemingly repetitive action is merely Hopkins aesthetic decision to highlight specific points within the page and thereby compose her personal and original tune. This method appears once said painting and drawing in reverse. The existing material and images are systematically covered up. What is interesting in this work is the idea of a memory the surface is a memory, and is yet to be vanished. The more ink that is added the less information she maintains of its originality. Once again this process of change rela tes to drawing as ideas and drawing as memory, Hopkins time consuming change to the image represents the processes within drawing. As disused in Hopkins work there is congruence here with Robert Rauschenberg drawing Erased de Kooning, 1953. Here the drawing has been removed as part of the progression of drawing. There is a clear conceptual starting point here with both artists. Once again this relates to memory. The initial image has been completely removed; however it is still obvious of its existence. Drawings are often created and removed by the lack of success in the drawing. This process of change is clear. The existence of the drawing has shifted from being obvious to then becoming unsure. From the title of the work we cant help but imagine what was. In relation to Hopkins work both artists are drawing attention to what they are taken away, creating possibilities for stereotypical images. There is significance in drawing then to painting or to be known in some sense the painting is once again the drawing. Although we would not understand that this was once a drawing, the title allows an understanding -Text and Image. The text and image represent a personal commentary on concerns that shape much recent art. Drawing into Sculpture chapter Two memories Drawings is analytical but its also expressive in its own right, it has duty to bear witness, nit simply by making a representation of something, but taking things apart and reassembling in a way that makes new connections, it is entirely experimental- Antony Gormley This chapter will discuss sculpture and drawing as a way to discover ideas. Joseph Beuys would have had false conceptions running through his mind if he hadnt made drawingsDrawing in this case would relate to drawing as expressing ideas. Drawing in these key terms would exist differently in real space than a sketched or painted one. With the situation of postmodernism, practice is not defined in relation to the given medium-sculpture- but rather in relation to the logical operations on a set of cultural terms for which any medium -photography, books, lines on wall, mirrors, or sculpture itself might be used. Thus the field provides both for an expanded but finite set of related positions for a given artist to occupy and explore The sculptural work is physically present and the space it exists in identical with real space. Drawing and painting for example tell stories, stories from the artist and stories that we are allowed to fabricate. Whether reality and fiction are allowed to be classified drawing does however extend into those dream dimensions that seem unattainable for sculpture.The drawing as known is not dedicated to any kind of medium, after the breakdown of modernism it seemed that artist became less concerned with the properties of a specific medium. Indeed artist would go against convention. As Stuart Morgan comments on Louise Bourgeois work, For an artist with no fixed style or material or medium, only the rule seems to apply and that there are no rules. No rules at least, which cannot be broken. Despite all gloomy prognoses of the end of freehand drawing, the strengths of drawing- being able to develop, test, and vary and idea with the greatest possible freedom and with an individual touch- have yet been obtained. When I think of Auguste Rodin this prognosis allows me to point out that Rodin thus falls into another category outlined by Berger, in this case drawing from observation and not memory. Rodins important synthesis defined the importance of the body in order to bring out purity. The artists drawing fall under different categories: drawings as preparations for sculptures; drawings as observational exercises per se and drawings from imagination. His approach to drawing as a sculpture, in his black drawings is visible in Rodin use of three dimensionality achieved by the use of chiaroscuro. It is interesting to find Rodin an artist from a traditional period within art, however Rodin felt it was necessary to go back to observation as his drawings became unknown. I realis ed my drawings where too divorced from reality, I started all over again, and worked from my life models. To summarise Rodin used drawing to work out his sculptures using observations, the artist that I will now discuss differ in terms of their practice as it seems fair to say that now drawing is used as an excursion away from reality. This past observation looks at the similarities in which contemporary artists such as Rachael Whiteread that used drawing as a way to form her compositions and as a tool of expressing the object/structure with all of its possibilities. These drawings would initially start as plans, and without these plans false conceptions of the work would appear apparent. Whiteread draws with a sculptures mind, for she follows that sense peculiar to making wood or stone sculptures. The drawing is seen as a field as co-extensive with real space, no longer subject to the illusion of an object marked off from the rest of the world. The space of illusionism can change and connect with the space within the world, in doing so it loses its objective and would become more subjective and accessible only to the individuals raw perception. Furthermore, drawing dedicates itself to the space within. The importance of drawing within the space is a crucial process whiteread would have, by redraw the entire space to understand and refine her ideas. For instance, if we look at Floor Study, 1994, ink correction fluid on paper, 46x34cm This wonderful drawing evokes such movement and repetition that can be designed in the sculptures she makes. In relation to such work Louise Bourgeois who uses her drawings as ways of sketching forth ideas. Her memories are the inspiration as she draws sense of her childhood from memory this way of drawing is not systematically correct as there is no end to the line. It was only a matter of time before drawing could be viewed as an opportunity and opportunity to develop the traditions and stick by the conventions in only a symbolic sense. Artists would now discover the imagination as they moved without restraints between media. The Insomnia Drawings, by Louise Bourgeois are a series of two hundred and twenty drawings that contain major themes in her work. Very important in these Insomnia Drawings is the link between drawing and words. The artist expressed her ideas about childhood fears and memories via drawing. Drawing became the channel to exorcise her fears. In my opinion her draw ings are described mainly from a psychoanalytical point of view. Bronfen, The insomnia Drawings suggests that the artists drawings can be divided into two main categories: on one hand abstract and geometric on the other figurative and realistic.Marie- Laurie Bernadac elucidates that the abstract drawings come from a deep need to achieve peace, rest and sleep, they relate to unconscious memories whereas the realistic drawings represent the conquest of negative memory, the need to erase and get rid of..I found these distinctions that Marie-Laure draws between realistic and abstract drawings interesting, However in my opinion the drawings that is described as realistic could not be described as such in the conventional sense. I see her drawings as more of a dreamt reality. In this sense the act of Bourgeois drawings are successful in expressing her ideas, for instance the work femme maison, where the link between the female body and the house is expressed in a simple and effective way . If we look closely as though we were discovering the secret poetry within Twomblys paintings, Bourgeois uses words which are generally used to express ideas; in her drawings words become drawings themselves. Furthermore the use of words as an aesthetic element with excitement functions to challenge the separation of written word and visual language. In fact the artist expresses them as a whole. Words are also used to represent the banality of everyday.In other words, every real artist, by means of lines compels us to recognise what has been drawn this is the spirit of the subject. Close to Bourgeois subject would undoubtedly be Tracy Emin, her work also makes reference to the feminine and sublime. Tracy Emin returns to drawing as the primary means of expressing her abject state of mind and body. Though she employs a vast array of media such as film, sculpture and performance, it is however drawing that satisfies her confessional practice with a constant presence within her practis e (. i.e.). The line takes control over the way she makes marks; with thread she can sew the line and engage with the same familiarities that the line has within drawing. The difference between drawing and a picture is that in the latter the subject is worked out for us to look at; the former I can imagine so many things which are only suggested. The possibilities of drawing fall back to its original tradition; there is a constant flux of ideas that of which deal with the process of change and randomness. Jan Albers for instance, works in a constant hover between reality and phantasm between figuration and abstract. His interest in spiritualism and imagery reveal the intensity of his artistic research and practice. In this example the exploding lines of colour create a shield covering the figure which defines the structure of the drawing as repetitive mark making with use of the pencil. Often his drawings become three dimensional; the drawings step out into our reality and also are part of Albers reality. The radiating lines extend the drawings hung on the wall; his work deplores the change in drawing and is an infinite example of what drawing can become or what drawing has become. Drawing to me is far greater than being such of a secondary nature; it is in fact primary Sometimes leading to the discovery of another. Progression with their chosen materials Joseph Beuys for instance, his drawing can be compared to most recent works within contemporary art such as Monika Grzymala. The drawing is an exercise far removed from perfection often their drawings are much obvious where there drawing began and what sequence the overlapping steps where executed. Furthermore these artists both deal with Time and Energy. Beuys drawings share a complexity of line yet the basic materials used to create the line defines a greater similarity. There lines are erratic and confusing to look at; Beuys drawings investigate his ideas using his memories to make a mark. Grzymala works with tape as her tool too make a mark on a surface. Line is a point taken for a walk There is a fearful energy to Monika Grzymalas drawing installations: layer upon layer of black lines scrawling up the gallery walls. They have a similar intensity to Beuys spontaneous suggestions of form. Beuys per formative actions served to widen the possibilities for what was considered art. I am defining the themes of change and progression; anything and everything has become possible. Drawing and performance the body chapter three This chapter will discuss, drawing in relation to performance within the conceptual art world. I will use artist such as Paul McCarthy, Rebecca Horn and Ives Klein as a way of comparing and evaluating the extreme ways in which these artists would create drawings but not in the traditional sense. These artists would go against their traditions and explore possibilities of finding a new way of drawing, idea art that reinforce the connections with figure and ground and the physical relation that they have engaged with. If we look at the work of Keith Herring it is clear to identify the fusion of post modern theory that, activist practise and the appropriation of the idea of site specific drawing (performance).The growing eclecticism of styles in the 1980s gave artists the freedom to appropriate style and form from other disciplines such as architectural, fashion, and scientific illustration, as well as popular culture.At this time particular artist began to champion drawing again, origi nally seen as the eccentrics within art, and then gradually acknowledged as important individuals. It can be said that drawing for these artist could be the only method that allowed them to fully express their thoughts, ideas and emotions.For instance Rebecca Horn is a performance artist who creates site specific installations, a sculpture that also makes films whose values of drawing derive from this process of her experimentation. These following examinations will portray the artistic style and energy, motifs and aesthetic strategies in which reflect the importance of drawing and demonstrate why these drawings should be accorded far greater importance than they have been in all her previous exhibitions and publications.Even in the momentum of drawing Rebecca Horn fuses conceptual thinking with emotional and per formative procedure. For instance, her Pencil Mask from 1972 (image), considers these aspects offering a more empathetic demonstration of this approach. Rebecca Horn challenges the drawing and the making of the drawing proves a highly concentrated labour. The head mask consisting of a lattice of vertical and horizontal straps cross.Systematically the actions are prepared to measure spontaneous expression. It can be